Revolutionary Notions

At the beginning of the 20^th century Latvia did not exist yet as an independent State. The territory of present-day Latvia was divided among a number of provinces that belonged to the Russian Empire. The Latvian people lived in the Russian provinces of Courland (Kurzeme), Livonia (Vidzeme) and Vitebsk. Vidzeme was annexed by Russia immediately after the Great Northern War in 1721. In 1722 Russia annexed the territory of Eastern Latvia (Latgale), which was added to the Russian province of Vitebsk. In 1795 the Duchy of Courland was also incorporated by Russia. German aristocracy, which had originally settled here in the 13^th century, had traditionally made up the political and economic ruling class in this region. At the beginning of the 20^th century the entire territory of present-day Latvia had belonged to Russia for barely more than a century. As opposed to other regions of Russia, this area was governed by a distinctly Western European lifestyle and mentality.

The turn of the 20^th century in Latvia was marked by discussions about when the new century would actually begin. Mathematicians argued that the new century would commence only in 1901, but society found the even digit "1900" more acceptable. Latvian newspapers awaited the new century in fear of a world war and also with hope that the new century may bring the world eternal peace and society may be freed of its great inherent contradictions. Some of these predictions turned out to be surprisingly precise.

In 1901 seven hundred years had passed since the foundation of the oldest Baltic medieval city Rīga, and a large celebration was held to commemorate the occasion. Festivities lasted several months and attracted widespread international attention. The main component of the event became an exhibition of Baltic industrial goods and craftsmanship, which was intended to display the city's greatness. At the end of the 19^th century and beginning of the 20^th century the territory of present-day Latvia had become the most industrially developed part of the Russian Empire. This area also included Russia's most important Baltic ports – Rīga and Liepāja. There was a particularly large concentration of industrial enterprises in Rīga, which produced factory equipment, automobiles, railroad cars and building materials. The chemical, textile and food industries were also well developed. The population of Rīga surpassed half million even before World War I. At the beginning of the 20^th century the population of Latvian-inhabited territories reached two million, and approximately seventy percent of this population was Latvian.

New political undercurrents penetrated Latvian society at the end of the 19^th century and became increasingly distinct at the beginning of the 20^th century. During the second half of the 19^th century society was marked by widespread national self-awareness – the process of national revival. In the final decade of the century Latvia was permeated by Marxism, which was propagated by the socialist movement "New Current" ("Jauna Strāva"). The "New Current" is considered the predecessor to the Latvian Social Democrats. The movement's political activities were associated with protests against capitalistic exploitation, overall demands for democratisation of the political establishment and belief in the victory of the proletariat, which would lead to general prosperity for the people. In concealment from official authorities, the Latvian Social Democratic Workers' Party (LSDWP) was founded in Rīga in June of 1904. The newly founded party began to demand improvements in workers' social conditions and turned against the existing social order in the Russian Empire's Baltic provinces. The LSDWP was the first Latvian political party.

The constant constrictions of civic rights and freedoms in Russia, the unresolved agrarian issue, the privileges of the landed gentry and attempts to Russify the Latvians were all causes that led to dissatisfaction among the Latvians with the social and political situation. January 13, 1905, the LSDWP declared a general strike. About 20,000 factory workers participated in a demonstration on the streets of Rīga. A widespread movement took hold, and demands were made for improved social conditions and more political rights. In rural areas the movement was geared against the local aristocrats – the German landed gentry, who owned most of the land and who had usurped local power. Later in history books these 1905 events were entitled the "Latvian Revolution." During this revolution several nationally-oriented Latvian Social Democrats publicly voiced for the first time the necessity to unite all Latvian-inhabited regions into an independent State – Latvia. This idea was especially popularised by the nationally-oriented leading ideologue of the Social Democratic Union, Miķelis Valters (1874-1968), who opposed the disenfranchisement and undemocratic political order of the Russian Empire.

World War I

In 1914 the dissonance among Europe's great powers had escalated. August 1 marked the beginning of World War I. German troops invaded Latvian territory. By October 1915 German armed forces had occupied all of Kurzeme. Approximately two thirds of Kurzeme's inhabitants fled to the eastern part of Latvia, and later – to Russia.

The first year of the war kindled a hitherto unseen wave of patriotism among the Latvian people. Immediately after Kurzeme came under German control Latvian social and political activists conceived the notion of founding Latvian military units in the Russian armed forces. For the remaining years of the war the Latvian Riflemen battalions, which later grew into regiments, were involved in military operations within Latvian territory and beyond.

The notion that the Latvian Riflemen would be fighting in the name of the Latvian people and for their future freedom had become widespread among the masses. The biggest and bloodiest battles for the Latvian Riflemen took place on the outskirts of Rīga, on December 23, 1916 (Old Style). As the battles began shortly before Christmas, they have entered history as the "Battles of Christmas". During these battles the Latvian Riflemen displayed tremendous courage, which was widely reflected in the foreign press. The Latvian Riflemen had to pay a high price for their victories in these battles. One fifth of the Riflemen were wounded or dead. As it turned out later, the "Battles of Christmas" had no strategic significance, and this led the Latvian Riflemen increasingly to believe that the Russian command had sent them to their death consciously and with ill intent.

The outcome of the "Battles of Christmas" fostered the spread of revolutionary sentiments among the Riflemen. In 1917 the ideas of the leftist Social Democrats (Bolsheviks) concerning ending the war and dethroning the Russian tsar, thereby replacing him with the rule of the proletariat, became popular among the ranks of the Latvian Riflemen. The Latvian soldiers who were drafted in the Russian army were in favour of Bolshevik-propagated ideas concerning each nation's right to self-determination and plans for the establishment of general prosperity within the country.

Following the Bolshevik coup d'état on November 7, 1917, the leftist Latvian Riflemen, who were considered the most trustworthy members of the crumbling Russian army, became the personal bodyguards of the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin). Lenin was aware of the escalating national problems in Russia. His epithet for Russia, "prison of nations", has gone down in history. By promising them the highly-desired right to self-determination and freedom Lenin was able to successfully use the Latvians for his own purposes.

In the meanwhile, by September 1917 German forces had already captured Rīga. Unable to achieve an agreement with Soviet Russia during peace talks, the Germans demonstrated their military superiority and occupied the remainder of Latvian territory in February of 1918. After the Russian-German peace treaty was signed on March 3 in Brestlitowsk, the civil and military authorities locally and in Berlin began to devise plans for ruling the occupied Baltic territory together with the local German landed gentry in Latvia. According to the Brestlitowsk treaty and its additional protocols, Germany was to keep Kurzeme and Vidzeme, while Latgale was to remain under Russian control. With this agreement the two superpowers split the Latvian nation, thereby completely ignoring the Latvian people's lawful right to self-determination.

During this time Latvian political parties had become increasingly active. In September 1917 in German-occupied Rīga Latvian parties joined together in a coalition – the "Democratic Bloc". At the beginning of December in Valka (Northern Latvia) Latvian organisations had finished forming the Latvian Provisional National Council (LPNC), which at that point in time became the most extensive representative institution of the Latvian people. At the session on January 30, 1918, the LPNC decided to establish sovereign and democratic Latvia, which would encompass all Latvian-inhabited regions.

Independent Latvia (1918-1940)

The German occupation forces attempted to combat the defenders of Latvian independence. However, at this time Germany's internal political situation was becoming increasingly unstable. November 11, 1918, Germany was compelled to sign the Compicgne armistice, which brought an end to World War I. This was an exceptionally good opportunity to realise the idea of Latvian independence. November 17, 1918, the LPNC and the "Democratic Bloc" agreed to jointly form a provisional parliament, the Latvian People's Council (LPC), which resolved to found an independent and democratic republic. On the following day, November 18, 1918, based upon the previous day's resolutions, the independent Republic of Latvia was proclaimed at a ceremonious meeting at the National Theatre in Rīga. The lawyer Jānis Čakste (1859-1927) was elected chairman of the LPC, and the agriculturist Kārlis Ulmanis (1877-1942) became leader of the government.

Unfortunately, the end of the war did not bring long-awaited peace for Latvia. Since the end of 1918 the existence of the newly-established government of independent Latvia was in threat of being attacked by the Russian Red Army, which also included the leftist or "red" Latvian Riflemen. Within a short span of time the Bolsheviks succeeded in conquering almost the entire territory of Latvia, thereby leaving only a small area around Liepāja under the control of the Ulmanis government. Under the leadership of Peteris Stucka (1865-1932) the Bolsheviks declared Soviet rule in the occupied territory of Latvia.

The government headed by Ulmanis rushed to form a national army in order to recapture the lost territory. In the meanwhile the position held by the Latvian government in Liepāja was becoming threatened by remaining German militarists and the local German landed gentry, who had established their own armed formation (the Landeswehr). They deposed Ulmanis' government, which they considered anti-German, and created a marionette cabinet under the leadership of the pastor Andrievs Niedra (1872-1942). Headed by the local Germans and volunteers from the German army, this puppet government recaptured the capital Rīga from the Bolsheviks in May of 1919.

After capturing Rīga the German military and political leadership saw an opportunity to establish in Latvia a more German-oriented political regime and they turned their weapons against the Latvian national armed forces. Nevertheless, with help from the Estonians, the Latvian national armed forces gained victory over the Germans on June 23, 1919, in Cēsis, and the Latvian-founded Ulmanis government was able to return to Rīga. Still, German ambitions in Rīga did not diminish. In the fall volunteers from the German army united under the leadership of the forces of the Russian adventurer Pavel Bermont-Avalov, whose intent was to renew the Russian Empire. As their first object of attack they saw independent Latvia. At the beginning of October 1919 Bermont-Avalov's troops attacked Rīga. However, the Latvians thwarted the intrusion on the banks of the Daugava River, and by November 11 the bermontians were driven out of Rīga. By the end of November they had been expelled from Latvian territory.

At the beginning of 1920 Bolshevik armed forces were forced out from the area around Latvia's eastern border. August 11, 1920, Latvia signed a peace treaty with Soviet Russia, in which Russia acknowledged Latvia's sovereignty and wilfully declined from claims to Latvian territory for all times. Peace, for which Latvia had waited so long, had finally descended, and the work of building a new nation could begin. Deeply disillusioned in the Bolshevik totalitarian regime, Latvian refugees who had fled to Russia during the war continued to return to Latvia until 1927. Repatriates included Latvian Riflemen and former non-supporters of Latvian independence – altogether more than 200,000 people.

January 26, 1921, the victors of World War I (Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, or the so-called Supreme Council of the Allies) recognised Latvia's independence de iure. This was also a signal to other countries to recognise Latvia's sovereignty. September 22, 1921, Latvia and the other two Baltic countries were admitted to the most prominent international organisation of that time – the League of Nations. In the period between the world wars Latvia endeavoured to pursue a neutral foreign policy, which was oriented toward close mutual co-operation between the Baltic countries and the League of Nations.

Once the situation stabilised and the country was liberated from foreign troops, the Constitutional Assembly was convened and on February 15, 1922, adopted the Constitution (Satversme) of the Republic of Latvia. From here on the Constitution prescribed the highest power in Latvia to the parliament, the Saeima, which was to elect the President and endorse the Cabinet of Ministers. Janis Cakste was elected first President of Latvia. The most influential political parties in Latvia after the war were the LSDWP and the civic-oriented Latvian Farmers' Union. The national minorities in Latvia (Germans, Jews, Russians) were also actively involved in political processes.

One of the most important tasks now was the revival of the economy, which had suffered tremendously during the war. The Latvian national monetary unit, the Lats, which replaced the short-lived Latvian Rouble, was issued in 1922. That same year the State began to implement the Agrarian Reform, which called for the division of State property and land that had once been held by the German landed gentry. Agrarian changes averted social tension in the country by making land available to former landless peasants and small famers. This was a return to historic justice, as now the land belonged to those who actually lived on and farmed the land. Within a short time span the number of farms doubled. Latvian agriculture was able to fully supply the country with food and also opened wide possibilities for the export of agricultural products (butter, bacon, flax, etc.). Agriculture was the largest sector of the economy and emloyed two thirds of the work force.

Latvian industry rapidly came back to life and was oriented chiefly toward food production, textile manufacturing and timber processing. The electronic sector developed in the 1930s. Latvia's largest electronics factory "VEF" manufactured modern radios, cameras and even aeroplanes. In the second half of the 1930s Latvia began to produce automobiles and trucks. With the help of foreign investment Latvia built a modern high-voltage hydroelectric power plant.

In the 1930s Latvia achieved one of the highest standards of living in Europe. The country adopted a progressive social insurance system. Already in the 1920s Latvia became known in the world as a country that takes special care of national minority rights. With government financial support Latvia's national minorities created their own autonomous school system. Latvia was often mentioned abroad as an example to other countries concerning the protection of minority rights.

In the beginning of the 1930s the worldwide economic crisis did not leave Latvia unscathed. The global crisis created political and economic tension in Latvian society. More radically inclined political circles were toying with the thought that under these circumstances the constitutionally defined parliamentary principle was not sufficiently effective. The Latvian Farmers' Union began drafting a bill to amend the Constitution, although the changes received no support from the other political parties. A coup d'etat took place on May 15, 1934. The parliament (Saeima) was dismissed and the activities of the political parties were suspended. Power was seized by the prime minister and member of the Latvian Farmers' Union Kārlis Ulmanis (who was also the leader of Latvia's first government). By then similar coups had already taken place in the majority of the European countries, including the other two Baltic countries – Lithuania (December 1926) and Estonia (March 1934).

Due to increased prosperity during the second half of the 1930s, there was no loud public outcry against the authoritarian rule of Karlis Ulmanis, although the political parties that had now gone underground were devising plans to bring back a parliamentarian democracy. During this time the international state of affairs had become increasingly entangled and Latvia's national security was weakening. The League of Nations demonstrated its inability to ward off international conflicts, and Germany was becoming more powerful. The German National Socialist leader Adolph Hitler had been plotting undefined plans to annex the Baltic territory to the Third Reich. The USSR and its communist dictator Iosif Dzhugashvili (Stalin) were also scheming to get the Baltic countries under their control. The interests of Moscow and Berlin intersected in the Baltic States and momentarily united these incongruous ideological opponents.

The Decline, Occupation and Annexation of Independent Latvia

August 23, 1939, the Soviet Union and German Third Reich signed a treaty of non-aggression, which contained a secret protocol concerning the division of Eastern Europe in spheres of influence. The treaty is usually referred to as the "Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact", according to the two statesmen who signed it. As a result of this criminal treaty and other documents that were later signed between Moscow and Berlin, Latvia and the other Baltic countries became part of the Soviet sphere of interests. The August 23 treaty provided Germany with a chance to commence aggressions against Poland on September 1, which gave rise to World War II, while the Soviet Union found an opportunity to subdue the Baltic States.

October 5 Moscow presented Latvia with an ultimatum, thereby forcing Latvian statesmen to sign the so-called treaty of "mutual assistance", which called for the deployment of Soviet military bases in Latvia (a treaty of this nature had already been signed by Estonia on September 28 and by Lithuania on October 10). Approximately 30,000 Red Army soldiers (land forces) were garrisoned in ten army bases in Latvia, which was equivalent to the number of troops in the Latvian army at the time. In addition, ships from the Russian fleet were stationed in the ports of Ventspils and Liepāja. Now, number of foreign troops in Latvia exceeded the number of soldiers in the Latvian armed forces. Latvia found itself in a very difficult situation. The government's freedom to act was severely restricted and Latvia's independence was threatened.

In response to an incentive from German Third Reich, more than 80% of Latvia's German minority (the Baltic Germans) moved to German territory at the end of 1939 and beginning of 1940. At that point in time, next to the Russians and the Jews, the Germans were the third largest national minority in Latvia, and made up more than 3% of the total population.

The Latvian government discerned a threat to its independence and empowered the Latvian Ambassador in London with special authority to represent the country in the case of lost sovereignty.

May 1940 the Soviet press in Russia began to voice regular unsubstantiated accusations against the Baltic countries regarding alleged activities against Moscow. June 16, 1940, an authoritative memorandum was issued to Latvia by the Soviet Union, in which Latvia was reprimanded for not abiding by the "mutual assistance" treaty and forming an alliance between the Baltic States against Moscow. The memorandum also demanded the formation of a new government and for stationing of additional Soviet military units. The memorandum was a continuation of the Soviet Union's illicit actions against the Baltic countries, which began on August 23, 1939. This was an act of blatant interference in a sovereign country's internal affairs, and its goal was the dissolution of Latvia's independence.

Unfortunately, Western countries showed no desire to assist the Baltic countries in their dismal fate. Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were left under the dominance of Russia's aggressive tendencies. In an attempt to avoid bloodshed (war against the USSR), the Latvian government decided to fulfil Moscow's peremptory demands. As a result, June 17, 1940, 100,000 Soviet Army troops occupied Latvia. Red Army units immediately seized control of all strategically important positions, thereby taking control of the entire country.

With the help of the Red Army and various agents, immediately after Latvia's occupation Moscow arranged political changes that were favourable to the Soviet regime. June 20 the formation of a new government was announced. A government with Professor Augusts Kirhenšteins (1872-1963) at the forefront was assembled from social and political activists who were favourably inclined toward Moscow. A political theatre was organised on July 14 and 15, 1940 – elections were held for the new parliament (the so-called "people's Saeima"), in which the Soviet regime allowed only pro-communistic candidates to run for office. As a result, July 21 the newly-elected Soviet marionette parliament voted to have Latvia become a part of the USSR.

The sovietisation of Latvia was rapidly begun. Unlawful resolutions were adopted regarding the nationalisation (confiscation from its owners) of land, buildings, banks, and various types of commercial and industrial enterprises. In Latvia Moscow began to terrorise those social strata that it considered menacing to Soviet power. Thus, the period from the summer of 1940 until June of 1941 has entered history as the "Year of Terror". June 14, 1941, thousands (approximately 14,000) of Latvians were deported to Siberia in cattle cars, where most of them perished.

Occupied Latvia During World War II

Soviet repressions in Latvia were interrupted by the beginning of World War II and the rapid invasion of Latvian territory by Nazi Germany's armed forces. By July 10, 1941, German armed forces had occupied all of Latvia's territory. Latvia became a part of Germany's Reichskomissariat Ostland – the Province General of Latvia. Just as during the year under Soviet rule, Latvia was an occupied territory. Anyone who was disobedient to the German occupation regime as well as those who had co-operated with the Soviet regime were killed or sent to concentration camps. German authorities did not permit Latvia's sovereignty or even the possibility of autonomy.

In violation of international rights, both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union unlawfully conscripted Latvia's inhabitants in their armed forces. During World War II more than 200,000 Latvian soldiers ended up in the rank and file of both occupation forces; approximately half of them (100,000) were killed on the battlefield.

The Soviet Union included in its army a portion of independent Latvia's former military units, as well as those Latvians who had ended up in Russia as a result of warfare or those who had formerly lived there. The authorities of Nazi Germany also mobilised the former soldiers of independent Latvia's army. Initially, German authorities organised volunteer recruitment campaigns, but when desired results were not obtained, soldiers were forcefully conscripted into the so-called "Latvian SS Volunteer Legion".

Latvia's population perished not only on the battlefield. During the years of Nazi occupation special campaigns exterminated 18,000 Latvians, approximately 70,000 Jews and 2,000 Gypsies – in total about 90,000 people. In the case of Latvians these were mostly civilians whose political convictions were unacceptable to the German occupation force. Jewish and Gypsy civilians were eliminated as a result of the inhuman Nazi "theory of races". Persecutions were mostly carried out by special German units (Einsatzgruppe A, Sicherheitsdienst, or SD) and police units. The German occupation regime attempted to involve the local population in war crimes. Thus, Latvian self-defence units, security police units, and SD auxiliary units were created and included volunteers who carried out part of the terror campaign.

Many Latvians were actively involved in a resistance movement against persecutions of the German occupation regime. For instance, Žanis Lipke risked his life to save more than fifty Jews. Civic circles in Latvia were also dissatisfied with the German occupation regime and secretly plotted to reinstate a democracy. In order to carry out the independence scheme an underground organisation was established, the Latvian Central Council, which published the outlawed publication "Brīva Latvija" ("Free Latvia"). The periodical was notably democratically inclined and propagated the idea of renewing democracy in Latvia after the war.

Nazi Germany began to suffer regular defeats on the eastern front and was pushed back to the west. Mid-July 1944 the Soviet Army once again crossed Latvia's pre-war eastern border, and by October 13 had already invaded Rīga. Mid-October the German Army, which partly also included the "Latvian Legion", was besieged in Kurzeme. Kurzeme was flooded with refugees from eastern Latvia who were fleeing Soviet rule, the Red Army and persecution. With no other reprieve in sight many fled in fishermen's boats and ships to Sweden and Germany, from where until 1951 they drifted to various parts of the Western world (mostly Australia and North America). Approximately 150,000 Latvians ended up in exile in the West.

According to approximate estimates, as a result of the war the population of Latvia decreased by half a million (25% less than in 1939). In comparison with 1939 the Latvian population had diminished by about 300,000. The war also inflicted heavy losses on the economy – many historic cities were destroyed, as well as industry and the infrastructure.

As of 1940 most of the democratic countries in the world did not recognise the incorporation of Latvia and the other Baltic States into the Soviet Union. The only exception was Sweden, which gave to Moscow the members of the "Latvian Legion", who had ended up in Sweden at the end of the war, and handed over to the Soviets the diplomatic representative offices of the Baltic countries in Stockholm. In contrast, after the war the United States of America became the most consistent defender of the Baltic people's aspirations for renewed independence. Throughout the entire period of occupation the embassy of independent Latvia continued to function in Washington D.C.

After the war Latvian exiles founded the several organisations included the World Federation of Free Latvians (WFFL) founded 1955, which represented the Latvian people to international organisations. During the period of Soviet occupation the WFFL seized every opportunity to remind the world of the need to end Latvia's occupation.

Occupied Latvia from 1945 to the Second Half of the 1980s

Whereas the end of World War II brought freedom for many countries in the world, for Latvia it brought half a century of Soviet occupation. After the war Moscow did everything in its power to quickly establish Russian law and order and to fully subjugate the population. Immediately following the re-occupation of Latvian territory, Moscow authorities began to persecute those who had co-operated with German Nazi forces. People were also arrested for activities during the period of independence, for being recognised as politically unreliable, for free thought, etc. The Russification of the Latvian society had begun.

The forests of Latvia were full of fighters from the national resistance movement (including former members of the "Latvian Legion"), who believed that Western countries will come to Latvia's aid and free the country from Soviet oppression. The national partisans, altogether 12,000, continued to actively resist Soviet rule long after the war had ended, until they were eliminated by the Soviet interior armed forces. The final unit of national partisans surrendered only in 1956, which marked the end of military resistance to the Soviet regime.

During the post-war occupation period Latvia was one of fifteen Soviet republics. Power in Latvia belonged entirely to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which also included the Communist Party of Latvia (CPL). Other political parties or movements were prohibited. The first leader of the CPL during the post-war period was Jānis Kalnbērziņš (1893-1986). Shortly after the end of World War II the Communist Party and its structures had gained control over all of Latvia. No important official could be confirmed in office without the approval of the CPL.

In accordance with previously prepared lists, on March 25, 1949, Soviet authorities arrested without trial more than 43,000 people and deported them to the north of Russia (Siberia). The deportees were mostly farmers, as well as those who were considered ideologically alien to the Soviet regime.

As ascertained by Latvian demographers, during the period of Soviet occupation a total of 340,000 people in Latvia were deported and otherwise persecuted, of which approximately 130,000 never returned to their homeland (i.e. perished). Entire population groups were deported to the north of Russia – independent Latvia's former political activists, soldiers, farmers, students, even schoolchildren and infants. In this way the Soviet regime exterminated its potential ideological opponents and was able to implement sovietisation of the territory and mass collectivisation of the countryside. Collectivisation or the formation of kolhozes took place coercively, by forcing farmers to combine plots of land, livestock and farming equipment. This type of farming was completely alien to Latvia, but had been the manner of farming in Russia for several decades. By the end of 1950 almost all of Latvia's agriculture had been collectivised.

Due to its advantageous geographical location, Latvia became Russia's military centre in the Baltic region. Here the USSR positioned the Headquarters of the Baltic War District; land, sea and aviation bases; and also strategic missile bases.

A short period of changes swept over Latvia in the second half of the 1950s. The changes were linked to the "ideological thaw" in Moscow. The USSR was now led by Nikita Khrushchev, who since 1956 had publicly condemned the transgressions of his predecessor Stalin's regime. During this time the so-called national communists moved to the top of Latvia's political elite and attempted to rejuvenate the role of the Latvian language in society. They also tried to stop the uncontrolled immigration and settlement of peoples from elsewhere in the USSR to Latvia, and resisted the establishment of alien management methods in industry and agriculture in Latvia. As a result of foreign immigration the proportion of Latvians in the country had begun to catastrophically decline. In 1935 Latvians made up 75.5% of the population, but according to official Soviet statistics, in 1959 Latvians comprised only 62% of the population, and the proportion of Russians in the population had increased most radically. At this time the total population of Latvia was a little more than two million (for comparison – in 1914 the population was more than 2.5 million, and in 2000 – just short of 2.4 million).

The free thinking of Latvia's communists seemed dangerous to Moscow. By 1959 all disobedient Latvian national communists, including their most prominent representative, Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers Eduards Berklavs (born 1914), were purged from the ranking positions in the party. The Communist Party appointed obedient followers in their place. Particularly noteworthy among these obedient agents were Arvīds Pelše (1899-1983) and Augusts Voss (1916-1994), who had previously lived in Russia. They even went so far in their complaisance that they prohibited the biggest Latvian holiday – Midsummer, and fostered an increasingly accelerated tempo of immigration to Latvia from the other USSR republics. Dismissing the national communists from leading positions and turning against Latvian traditions only enlarged that part of society that was ill-disposed toward the occupation regime.

The defeat of the national communists in occupied Latvia marked the beginning of a new period that was characterised by total ideological and political control. Hopelessness and resignation to fate were prevalent among the masses. This period is usually referred to as the stagnation period. Still, in comparison to other USSR-subjugated territories, the standard of living in Latvia remained relatively high and people from other Soviet republics attempted to seize any opportunity to move to Latvia.

All in all the economy in Latvia during the Soviet occupation developed, and there existed an all-encompassing system of education and health care. All education from primary school to the university level was free of charge. The population also did not have to pay for health care. Important achievements were attained in science. 15 institutes of scientific research that were under the wing of the Academy of Science became the most important research centre. Research were conducted in physics, astronomy, composite mechanics, information technology, chemistry, aquatic biology, the study of viruses and molecular biology (most of these areas of research are being continued today). One fourth of all medicaments that were invented in the USSR were developed in Latvia. During the Soviet period 30,000 persons (1.2%) were employed in the field of science in Latvia, which was a very high indicator on a world scale.

Moscow issued orders for the construction of large-scale industrial plants in Latvia. Manufacturing in the chemical and electronic industries was widely developed. The necessary labour force for these enterprises was flooded in from Russia. Many factories manufactured output for the needs of Russia's armed forces.

During the 1980s the Soviet planned economy's inability to compete with the democratic world's free market economy became progressively apparent. Thus, increasingly larger circles of the social and political elite agreed that it is necessary to convert to a western-style economy.

Opposition to the occupation regime persisted throughout the entire post-war occupation period. There existed various outlawed groupings of people who held similar views, read prohibited anti-communistic literature, disseminated proclamations and displayed the forbidden red-white-red Latvian national flag. Starting with the 1960s a new type of repression against nonconformists was introduced in the Soviet Union – imprisonment in psychiatric hospitals. This fate and even harsher outcomes were met by many courageous individuals, mostly writers (so-called dissidents, i.e. those who differ in belief or opinion) who dared to speak up against the stupor of communistic ideology and its tendency toward total control of the individual and public life.

Renewed Independence

During the second half of the 1980s the process of perestroika (restructuring) began in the Soviet Union, which was now led by Mikhail Gorbachev. The dissident movement that had been subdued in the first half of the 1980s became reactivated in 1986.

In 1986 it became widely known to the public that the USSR was planning to build another hydroelectric power plant on Latvia's largest river Daugava, and that a decision had been made to build a subway in Rīga. Both of these projects planned by Moscow would lead to the destruction of Latvia's landscapes, and cultural and historical wealth. In the press journalists urged the public to protest against these devastating resolutions. The public reacted immediately, and in response the Environmental Protection Club was founded on February 28, 1987. During the second half of the 1980s the Environmental Protection Club became one of the most influential mass movements, which simultaneously began to make demands for Latvia's sovereignty.

On June 14, 1987, the commemorative day of the 1941 deportations, the human rights group "Helsinki-86", which had been founded one year earlier, organised a ceremony of placing flowers at the Freedom Monument (Latvia's symbol of independence that was erected in 1935). This was an unprecedented event that demonstrated the rebirth of national courage and self-confidence in Latvia.

June 1 and 2, 1988, the Writers' Union held a congress, during which the Latvian intelligentsia discussed the democratisation of society, Latvia's economic sovereignty, ending migration from the USSR, the transformation of industry and the protection of Latvian language rights. Over the course of these days, for the first time in post-war Latvia, the criminal secret protocol of the "Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact", which had determined Latvia's fate after 1939, was publicly acknowledged.

The congress of the Writers' Union stirred up the public masses and provided an additional stimulus for the general process of national revival.

In the summer of 1988 two of the most important organisations of the revival period began to assemble themselves: the Latvian People's Front (LPF) and the Latvian National Independence Movement (LNIM). Soon afterwards the more radically inclined Citizens' Congress entered the political arena and called for complete non-compliance with the representatives of the illicit Soviet regime. All of these organisations had a common goal – the reinstatement of democracy and independence. October 7, 1988, there was a mass public manifestation that was dedicated to the issue of Latvia's sovereignty and the establishment of judicial order. October 8 and 9 was the first congress of the Latvian People's Front. This organisation, which united 200,000 members, became the guiding force of the revival movement in Latvia and the return to independence.

On August 23, 1989, fifty years had gone by since the signing of the criminal "Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact". In order to call the world's attention to the fate of the Baltic countries, on this day the People's Fronts of all three Baltic countries held a grandiose political manifestation – "The Baltic Way". The Baltic people created a 600-km-long human "chain" from Tallinn through Rīga to Vilnius. This was a symbolic demonstration of the Baltic people's united will for independence.

New elections of the Supreme Soviet took place on March 18, 1990, in which the supporters of independence gained victory. May 4, 1990, the new Supreme Soviet of the LSSR adopted a Declaration of Independence, which called for the renewal of pre-war Latvia and the 1922 Constitution. Moscow and the USSR military circles could not come to terms with the plans to reinstate Latvia's independence. January 1991 pro-Moscow and procommunist political forces launched an attack. With the use of brutal force attempts were made to overthrow the lawfully elected power. The implementation of Moscow's goals was thwarted by the Latvian people's organised and non-violent resistance, which entered history as the "Days of the Barricades". August 19, 1991, an unsuccessful attempt at a coup d'etat took place in Moscow when a small group of visible Soviet functionaries tried to usurp power. This event resulted in Latvia moving toward independence at an even more accelerated pace. August 21, 1991, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian Republic announced that the transition period to full independence that was declared on May 4, 1990, has come to an end. Thus, Latvia proclaimed itself a fully independent nation – a nation whose judicial foundation stemmed back to statehood that existed before the occupation on June 17, 1940.

The renewed Latvian Saeima (parliament) convened for its first session in 1993 and elected as president the grandnephew (Guntis Ulmanis – born 1939) of pre-war Latvia's President Kārlis Ulmanis.

Following the renewal of independence Latvia rapidly returned to the international milieu. September 17, 1991, Latvia was admitted to the United Nations, and a few days earlier Latvia had already become a member of the European Organisation for Security and Co-operation. In February, 1995, Latvia became a member of the European Council.

The renewal of independence brought swift changes in Latvia's economic sphere. At the end of 1991 the country abandoned the planned economy of the Soviet era and switched to a free market economy. In 1993 the Latvian national currency, the Lats, was brought back into circulation. Latvia became an important transit country for the export of Russia's raw materials. Land and other real estate were returned to their rightful pre-occupation owners or their heirs.

A system of political parties began to take shape. The whole spectrum of Europe's traditional political parties are presently active in Latvia (leftists, centrists, rightists, "greens", etc.). The LSDWP and the Farmers' Union resumed activities.

The removal of Russian armed forces (former USSR occupation forces) from Latvian territory was completed on August 31, 1994. The last remaining Russian military object in Latvia and the Baltic countries, the Skrunda radar station, ceased operations on August 31, 1998. October 21, 1999, this final Russian military base in the Baltic States was turned over to the jurisdiction of Latvian authorities.

Since the renewal of independence Latvia has consistently moved toward two of its most important foreign policy goals – membership in the European Union and NATO. During the 1990s many social, economic and judicial changes have been implemented in Latvia in order to prepare for admittance to these organisations. In close co-operation with the European Union, a special programme for integrating into Latvian society the immigrants who came to Latvia during the Soviet period has been developed and is operating successfully.

Latvia has consistently moved toward the privatisation of businesses and real estate. A special Privatisation Agency was established in order to transfer the large state-owned enterprises to private ownership.

At the end of the 20^th century the leaders of many pre-eminent countries in the world have embarked on official visits to Latvia. Due to its advantageous geographical location, Latvia has become a regional integration centre on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. The headquarters of the united land forces of the Baltic States, the Baltic battalion (BALTBAT), is also stationed here. In the second half of the 1990s Latvia began to set up a modern, guarded eastern border, which is expected to become the eastern border of the European Union in the future.

The end of the century in Latvia was unique in the sense that Latvia became the first country in Central and Eastern Europe to elect a woman as president. In the summer of 1999 Professor of Psychology Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga (born 1937) was elected President of Latvia by the Saeima.

At the end of 1999 in Helsinki the heads of the European Union countries and governments invited Latvia to begin negotiations regarding accession to the European Union.

© Text: Dr. Raimonds Cerūzis, The University of Latvia, 2001

© The Latvian Institute
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